Music Video Theory

SEMIOTICS

Semiology is the study of signs and symbols.  Signs consist of a signifier (a word, an image, a sound and so on) and its meaning – the signified. Roland Barthes researched how audiences interpret what they see and argued that "The audience look for signs to help them interpret the narrative... These deeply rooted signs are based on expectations the audience has due to their prior knowledge based on old myths which are organised by denotations and connotations


A denotation is a literal meaning (e.g. the word ‘dog’ denotes a mammal that barks). 


Denotations signify connotations – the associations of the denotation. For example, the colour red might connote danger, romance or blood.

Our actions and thoughts – in other words what we do habitually, are often governed by a complex set of conventions. We are dependent on our ability to interpret them intuitively. A good example of this in the real world is traffic lights and the different colours they display; we automatically know how to react to each separate colour without even thinking about it which is because this has been established over a long period time and is what we learn as children; it requires unconscious cultural awareness and knowledge to decipher these signs’ meanings.


In the study of semiotics, there is three types of signs which are studied;
1. Iconic signs – Icons are signs where meaning is based on similarity of appearance such as a picture.
2. Indexical Signs – These types of signs have a cause-and-effect relationship between the sign and the meaning of the sign; there is a direct link between the two. For example, smoke signifies fire.
3. Symbolic/arbitrary signs – These signs have a random or conventional link which is basically where the relation between the signifier and signified is purely conventional and culturally specific. For example, most words. In one country to another – these signs will be different.


Signs can get their meanings from various relations but there are two in particular I would like to mention. Paradigmatic relations (Paradigms) are where signs get their meaning from their association with other signs. Syntagmatic relations (Syntagms) are different and it is where they get their meaning from their sequential order such as grammar or the sequence of events that build up a story.


Two words mentioned above; signifier and signified are what each sign can be broken down into. The signifier is the thing or item so essentially it is a signs physical form such as somebody’s facial expressions or an image for example. Every signifier has a signified and only together do they form a sign. For example, if we take the word ‘hot’ as a signifier, what could the signifier be? Well that would depend on the context the word is spoken in. On the one hand ‘hot’ could be referring to somebody, implying that they are good-looking but on the other hand it may be denoting that the temperature is ‘hot’. Depending on the geographical location and time, the relationship between the signifier and signified can change; especially within different cultures.





Narrative theory - Tzvetan Todorov



Tzvetan Todorov's narrative theory suggests that all narratives follow a three part structure where they begin with equilibrium, where everything is balanced, progress as something comes along to disrupt that equilibrium, and finally reach a resolution, when equilibrium is restored.


These are the steps for all traditional stories:
1. Equilibrium (everything is as it should be)
2. Disruption (by an event) 
3. Recognition of disruption
4. Attempts to repair disruption
5. Return to equilibrium




Structuralism – Levi-Strauss



Structuralism is the study of the hidden rules that govern a structure. This theory was thought up by Levi-Strauss. He thought that the human mind could be investigated by studying the fundamental structure underlying myths, which are described as a combination of paradigms and syntagms which make up an oft-told story with elaborate cultural. He developed the idea of ‘binary opposition’ – that the system of myths and fables were rules by a structure of opposing terms such as hot/cold. Many writers have analysed media products using the idea of the binary opposition, but seeing the overall system as ‘ideology’ rather than ‘human consciousness’. Binary opposition is the idea of good VS bad, for example Star Wars; the good being Luke Skywalker and the bad being Darth Vader.





Steven Neale – Genre theory



Steve Neale’s theory of repetition and difference states that genres all contain instances of repetition and difference, difference is essential to the to the economy of the genre. Neale states that a genre is defined by two things;
How much the media is conforming to its genre’s individual conventions and stereotypes. A piece of media must match the genre’s conventions to be identified as part of that genre. For example, in a hip/hop music video you would expect to see violence or some sort of rebellious behaviour.
Secondly, how much a piece of media subverts the genre’s conventions and stereotypes. The media must subvert convention enough to be considered. One good example of subverting stereotypes is Arcade Fire’s “We exist”.





Jean Baudrillard

The dictionary Definition of Postmodernism says it is ‘A style and concept in the arts characterized by a distrust of theories and ideologies and by the drawing of attention to conventions’. A postmodernist called Julian McDougall has said that in a media saturated world, we are constantly immersed in some form of media 24/7. It is always there; when you’re on the move and travelling, at work and at home which can cause problems like stress because it is almost like nobody can disconnect themselves from this digital age. This has caused issues regarding the distinction between reality and how the media represents things to us; this has caused a proliferation of stereotypes which more often than not, the entertainment industry reinforces with the media they release. It has gotten to a point where media is reality.


Some people see this as some kind of historical evolution into this modern period of time where representation and stereotypes can be played around and some decide to exploit these changes in a funny way such as a pastiche parody or more commonly today, intertextual references that entice people into media because they feel special that they understand references to other media as it makes them feel connected and a part of it. Others just say that postmodernism is a fresh new way of thinking about media, even though it has always been way; it is only now it has taken the spotlight with the come around of things such as fake news and the pure ease there is of distributing information.


The media itself is of great value to most modern day lives now as it is everywhere, even though any judgements and ideas in media are simply taste; we live in a ‘reality’ which is defined by representation and images – this can be described as a state of simulacrum. Images also refer to each other and help represent each other as reality rather than what is true reality that exists before and image is created to represent it – this can therefore be described as a state of hyperreality.


There were two main philosophers within the postmodern movement, Baudrillard and Lyotard; both men have now passed away but during their life they came up with different theories of what postmodernism was. They both shared the belief that the idea of truth needs to be deconstructed so that we can challenge the dominant ideas in which people claim to be the truth – Lyotard described this as a ‘grand narrative’.


Baudrillard theorised that the lack of distinctions between reality and simulacrum originates in numerous phenomena; contemporary media, including Television, film, print and the internet. I feel that music videos should also fall under this banner as they are becoming more cinematic and are conforming to societal conventions, although some do purposely subvert this trend which can be very effective. All of these mediums are responsible for blurring the line between reality and the hyperreality we live in now.


In many postmodern media texts, there are examples of texts or products which intentionally embark on exploring with the state of hyperreality. These texts are often intertextual and self-referential. They often break the rules of the ordinary and seek to explore the nature of their own prestige as constructed texts; they essentially present media reality but not reality itself.


  

Audience Reception Theory – Stuart Hall 

Stuart Hall created an ‘encoding-decoding’ model that argued producers of media encode ‘preferred meanings’ into text but they may be perceived and read by the audience in several ways; The dominant-hegemonic position which is the ‘preferred reading’ that accepts a texts’ messages and the conceptual assumptions we come to behind the messages. Another way a producer might encode a ‘preferred meaning’ into a text would be using the negotiated position; here the reader accepts the texts ideological assumptions but disagrees with aspects of the message. So, the reader negotiates the meaning to fit in with their ‘lived experience’. One other way a text could be received is via oppositional reading in which the reader objects both of the overt messages and their assumptions.


Hall claimed that media texts go through stages of encoding and decoding. Decoding is when an audience views the text and deduces their own ideologies. Of course, this theory can not be applied to all audiences as they may react differently to how the producer intended. A contemporary example of this is Miley Cyrus who went from being a sweet, innocent Hannah Montanna girl to a ‘slutty’ mess. The producer’s intentions were most likely to divert her persona away from her early career TV and breakthrough into the industry with a whole new identity.


So, what is this theory? Well it is an active audience theory which witness’s the audience being actively engaged in the interpretation of media texts, rather than passive consumers. In contemporary media, we are all active viewers. The way we perceive a piece of media can be dependent on several factors including;
• Life experiences
• Mood at the time of consuming the media
• Age
• Culture
• Beliefs
• Gender


Summary of the 3 models of the ‘encoding-decoding’ theory


DOMINANT
How the producer wants the audience to view the media text they agree with the message is it conveying.


NEGOTIATED
A compromise between the dominant and oppositional readings, the audience understand and agree with the text but disagree with other areas they have their own views on.


OPPOSITIONAL
The audience rejects the encoded meaning and creates their own meaning for the text, they fully disagree with the message being submitted.







Vernallis

Carol Vernallis is know for her theory based on music video editing; it is based around four factors, Narrative, editing, camera movement/framing and diegesis.


Narrative
Vernallis suggest that the video is a visual response to the narrative and whatever is happening visual; reflects the lyrics of the song. However she also says how the  narrative may not be completed and therefore the video can appear disjointed. If the video is incomplete, it opens questions that won't necessarily be answered within the duration of the music video. This would likely be the case if the video takes a montage style rather than a simple clear focus point for the audience.


Editing
Vernallis says that a convention of music video editing is that the video may disrupt or break the conventions of continuity editing that you'd expect to see in TV and films. This can sometimes be purposely made apparent in the foreground for effect but sometimes it is hidden or left unnoticed. Examples where the conventions of continuity editing can be broken are:
• Breaks of the 180 and 30 degree rule
• Juxtaposition of graphics and framing
• Jump cuts
• Thought beats


Camera movements/framing
Vernallis states that establishing shots are a key feature of a music video and are used frequently throughout, she also explained the other key shots are medium and close ups which establish the artiste and show off their persona/ brand through the use of Mise-en-scene. The framing in a music videos is distinctive as the camera will often move in time in time with the music and/or lyrics.


Diegesis
The diegesis is similar to the narrative in the sense that is relates to the overall plot. Vernallis explains how diegesis can be revealed slowly. The music video may be disjointed and would therefore cause some kind of disruption to the diegesis and subsequently the narrative may be left incomplete.