Music Video Theory

SEMIOTICS

Semiology is the study of signs and symbols.  Signs consist of a signifier (a word, an image, a sound and so on) and its meaning – the signified. Roland Barthes researched how audiences interpret what they see and argued that "The audience look for signs to help them interpret the narrative... These deeply rooted signs are based on expectations the audience has due to their prior knowledge based on old myths which are organised by denotations and connotations


A denotation is a literal meaning (e.g. the word ‘dog’ denotes a mammal that barks). 


Denotations signify connotations – the associations of the denotation. For example, the colour red might connote danger, romance or blood.

Our actions and thoughts – in other words what we do habitually, are often governed by a complex set of conventions. We are dependent on our ability to interpret them intuitively. A good example of this in the real world is traffic lights and the different colours they display; we automatically know how to react to each separate colour without even thinking about it which is because this has been established over a long period time and is what we learn as children; it requires unconscious cultural awareness and knowledge to decipher these signs’ meanings.


In the study of semiotics, there is three types of signs which are studied;
1. Iconic signs – Icons are signs where meaning is based on similarity of appearance such as a picture.
2. Indexical Signs – These types of signs have a cause-and-effect relationship between the sign and the meaning of the sign; there is a direct link between the two. For example, smoke signifies fire.
3. Symbolic/arbitrary signs – These signs have a random or conventional link which is basically where the relation between the signifier and signified is purely conventional and culturally specific. For example, most words. In one country to another – these signs will be different.


Signs can get their meanings from various relations but there are two in particular I would like to mention. Paradigmatic relations (Paradigms) are where signs get their meaning from their association with other signs. Syntagmatic relations (Syntagms) are different and it is where they get their meaning from their sequential order such as grammar or the sequence of events that build up a story.


Two words mentioned above; signifier and signified are what each sign can be broken down into. The signifier is the thing or item so essentially it is a signs physical form such as somebody’s facial expressions or an image for example. Every signifier has a signified and only together do they form a sign. For example, if we take the word ‘hot’ as a signifier, what could the signifier be? Well that would depend on the context the word is spoken in. On the one hand ‘hot’ could be referring to somebody, implying that they are good-looking but on the other hand it may be denoting that the temperature is ‘hot’. Depending on the geographical location and time, the relationship between the signifier and signified can change; especially within different cultures.





Narrative theory - Tzvetan Todorov



Tzvetan Todorov's narrative theory suggests that all narratives follow a three part structure where they begin with equilibrium, where everything is balanced, progress as something comes along to disrupt that equilibrium, and finally reach a resolution, when equilibrium is restored.


These are the steps for all traditional stories:
1. Equilibrium (everything is as it should be)
2. Disruption (by an event) 
3. Recognition of disruption
4. Attempts to repair disruption
5. Return to equilibrium




Structuralism – Levi-Strauss



Structuralism is the study of the hidden rules that govern a structure. This theory was thought up by Levi-Strauss. He thought that the human mind could be investigated by studying the fundamental structure underlying myths, which are described as a combination of paradigms and syntagms which make up an oft-told story with elaborate cultural. He developed the idea of ‘binary opposition’ – that the system of myths and fables were rules by a structure of opposing terms such as hot/cold. Many writers have analysed media products using the idea of the binary opposition, but seeing the overall system as ‘ideology’ rather than ‘human consciousness’. Binary opposition is the idea of good VS bad, for example Star Wars; the good being Luke Skywalker and the bad being Darth Vader.





Steven Neale – Genre theory



Steve Neale’s theory of repetition and difference states that genres all contain instances of repetition and difference, difference is essential to the to the economy of the genre. Neale states that a genre is defined by two things;
How much the media is conforming to its genre’s individual conventions and stereotypes. A piece of media must match the genre’s conventions to be identified as part of that genre. For example, in a hip/hop music video you would expect to see violence or some sort of rebellious behaviour.
Secondly, how much a piece of media subverts the genre’s conventions and stereotypes. The media must subvert convention enough to be considered. One good example of subverting stereotypes is Arcade Fire’s “We exist”.





Jean Baudrillard

The dictionary Definition of Postmodernism says it is ‘A style and concept in the arts characterized by a distrust of theories and ideologies and by the drawing of attention to conventions’. A postmodernist called Julian McDougall has said that in a media saturated world, we are constantly immersed in some form of media 24/7. It is always there; when you’re on the move and travelling, at work and at home which can cause problems like stress because it is almost like nobody can disconnect themselves from this digital age. This has caused issues regarding the distinction between reality and how the media represents things to us; this has caused a proliferation of stereotypes which more often than not, the entertainment industry reinforces with the media they release. It has gotten to a point where media is reality.


Some people see this as some kind of historical evolution into this modern period of time where representation and stereotypes can be played around and some decide to exploit these changes in a funny way such as a pastiche parody or more commonly today, intertextual references that entice people into media because they feel special that they understand references to other media as it makes them feel connected and a part of it. Others just say that postmodernism is a fresh new way of thinking about media, even though it has always been way; it is only now it has taken the spotlight with the come around of things such as fake news and the pure ease there is of distributing information.


The media itself is of great value to most modern day lives now as it is everywhere, even though any judgements and ideas in media are simply taste; we live in a ‘reality’ which is defined by representation and images – this can be described as a state of simulacrum. Images also refer to each other and help represent each other as reality rather than what is true reality that exists before and image is created to represent it – this can therefore be described as a state of hyperreality.


There were two main philosophers within the postmodern movement, Baudrillard and Lyotard; both men have now passed away but during their life they came up with different theories of what postmodernism was. They both shared the belief that the idea of truth needs to be deconstructed so that we can challenge the dominant ideas in which people claim to be the truth – Lyotard described this as a ‘grand narrative’.


Baudrillard theorised that the lack of distinctions between reality and simulacrum originates in numerous phenomena; contemporary media, including Television, film, print and the internet. I feel that music videos should also fall under this banner as they are becoming more cinematic and are conforming to societal conventions, although some do purposely subvert this trend which can be very effective. All of these mediums are responsible for blurring the line between reality and the hyperreality we live in now.


In many postmodern media texts, there are examples of texts or products which intentionally embark on exploring with the state of hyperreality. These texts are often intertextual and self-referential. They often break the rules of the ordinary and seek to explore the nature of their own prestige as constructed texts; they essentially present media reality but not reality itself.


  

Audience Reception Theory – Stuart Hall 

Stuart Hall created an ‘encoding-decoding’ model that argued producers of media encode ‘preferred meanings’ into text but they may be perceived and read by the audience in several ways; The dominant-hegemonic position which is the ‘preferred reading’ that accepts a texts’ messages and the conceptual assumptions we come to behind the messages. Another way a producer might encode a ‘preferred meaning’ into a text would be using the negotiated position; here the reader accepts the texts ideological assumptions but disagrees with aspects of the message. So, the reader negotiates the meaning to fit in with their ‘lived experience’. One other way a text could be received is via oppositional reading in which the reader objects both of the overt messages and their assumptions.


Hall claimed that media texts go through stages of encoding and decoding. Decoding is when an audience views the text and deduces their own ideologies. Of course, this theory can not be applied to all audiences as they may react differently to how the producer intended. A contemporary example of this is Miley Cyrus who went from being a sweet, innocent Hannah Montanna girl to a ‘slutty’ mess. The producer’s intentions were most likely to divert her persona away from her early career TV and breakthrough into the industry with a whole new identity.


So, what is this theory? Well it is an active audience theory which witness’s the audience being actively engaged in the interpretation of media texts, rather than passive consumers. In contemporary media, we are all active viewers. The way we perceive a piece of media can be dependent on several factors including;
• Life experiences
• Mood at the time of consuming the media
• Age
• Culture
• Beliefs
• Gender


Summary of the 3 models of the ‘encoding-decoding’ theory


DOMINANT
How the producer wants the audience to view the media text they agree with the message is it conveying.


NEGOTIATED
A compromise between the dominant and oppositional readings, the audience understand and agree with the text but disagree with other areas they have their own views on.


OPPOSITIONAL
The audience rejects the encoded meaning and creates their own meaning for the text, they fully disagree with the message being submitted.







Vernallis

Carol Vernallis is know for her theory based on music video editing; it is based around four factors, Narrative, editing, camera movement/framing and diegesis.


Narrative
Vernallis suggest that the video is a visual response to the narrative and whatever is happening visual; reflects the lyrics of the song. However she also says how the  narrative may not be completed and therefore the video can appear disjointed. If the video is incomplete, it opens questions that won't necessarily be answered within the duration of the music video. This would likely be the case if the video takes a montage style rather than a simple clear focus point for the audience.


Editing
Vernallis says that a convention of music video editing is that the video may disrupt or break the conventions of continuity editing that you'd expect to see in TV and films. This can sometimes be purposely made apparent in the foreground for effect but sometimes it is hidden or left unnoticed. Examples where the conventions of continuity editing can be broken are:
• Breaks of the 180 and 30 degree rule
• Juxtaposition of graphics and framing
• Jump cuts
• Thought beats


Camera movements/framing
Vernallis states that establishing shots are a key feature of a music video and are used frequently throughout, she also explained the other key shots are medium and close ups which establish the artiste and show off their persona/ brand through the use of Mise-en-scene. The framing in a music videos is distinctive as the camera will often move in time in time with the music and/or lyrics.


Diegesis
The diegesis is similar to the narrative in the sense that is relates to the overall plot. Vernallis explains how diegesis can be revealed slowly. The music video may be disjointed and would therefore cause some kind of disruption to the diegesis and subsequently the narrative may be left incomplete.

Textual Analysis - Toxic

About the artiste

Britney Spears (35) before joining record company 'Jive Records' in 1997, had a career in on television and roles in stage productions. Her two first studio albums were internal success'; featuring songs such as 'Baby one more time' and 'Oops!... I did it again'. However, it was in 2004 on her album 'In the zone' when the worldwide success song 'Toxic' was released. It reached the top 5 in 15 countries, whilst topping the charts in the USA and UK. Although spears did not write the song, she made it her own by showing that she is a grown woman and used her sexuality to appeal to a mainly male demographic whilst changing and evolving in conjunction with her similar aged fan base.

The music throughout Britney's 'Toxic' is high tempo and I would suggest it is a pop/dance genre collaboration. The speed of the music also reflects the racy atmosphere the sexuality in this video creates. Although the song first appeared on her album 'In the zone' it was also re-released on her greatest hits album 'My Prerogative' and this could represent the whole persona she has created for herself and demonstrates the rights she feels she has as a white American woman. Auto tune was used a lot in this song and it added a very superficial effect; one section of the song even played on the fact they were using auto tune and made it blatantly obvious.

Lyrics

For the most part, the music video appears to be disjunctured. The visuals demonstrate this when she appears as an aide-hostess and some form of Batman style hero and even a James Bond like villain; without the lyrics having any link. But in some instances, the lyrics are amplified by the video. One scene shows Britney walks into a room which is labelled toxic, she steals some kind of formula which she later uses to poison a man she was pursuing. The lyrics also show how Spears has now moved on from her innocent persona to become a woman in this sexually erotic video. This is reinforced as the lyrics allude to sexual and drug desires which 'adult like'. One of the allusions to drugs was with the line "too high can't come down" which is ironically referenced by the fact she is on a plane high up in the sky. Also, the sexual desire could be referenced because she can't help falling in love with this man but he is a bad influence (Toxic) she is attracted to him regardless.

Genre/mise-en-scene

The 'Toxic' video fits into the mainstream pop genre with numerous costume changes and locations; using the methods of cross cutting. Being a pop video, the dance choreography in the video is quite prominent; although the routines are simple, Britney uses her sexuality to make them appealing. At one stage, she pretends to escape some kind of laser trap doing several flexible moves which show off some of the more advanced moves she is capable of doing. Her target demographic is that of young girls and teenagers who would expect dancing in the video so by her doing so she is fulfilling what the fans expect of her. She also appeals to a more mature audience which have grown up with her by using her sexuality; she bumps and grinds with different men in the video. This and her virtually nude suit all in the name of the 'performance' brought about lots of controversy which has always followed Britney since starting her music career; especially with the Baby one more time video.

The costumes are conventional of a young female star. Her elaborate dance moves and costumes are her whole image; she is not known for her singing and thus relies on her sex appeal and body movements to maintain public interest and the controversy she has created; although bad publicity, got lots of people talking about her. She wears several costumes in the video which conforms with Mulvey's study of the male gaze, for example, her air hostess outfit is very high riding and you can even see her pink pants. She also wears a tight superhero outfit which shows off her midriff. 

The opening shot of the video is of a plane and two birds which could show how she wants to break free from her current image. From a young age, she has had some form of career in the media industry; starting at Disney and the start of her solo career at the age of 17. Any videos that Britney appears in have the same theme to them; the desire to break free from something. In her first video for ‘Baby hit...’ the Mise en scene of a ticking clock and claustrophobic classroom highlighted this theme which Toxic carries on. In terms of the audience, young adults, especially teenagers, also want to escape from school or like to play ‘dress up’ so Britney’s Mise en scene of escape is one shared with her target audience. This desire to escape is taken to the extreme in the video for ‘Everytime’ where Britney attempts suicide; again, a very public cry for help which foreshadows the breakdown which came a few years later.

Cinematography

Britney as the star is the focus of the music video and through the use of mid shots and close ups, she always seems to be the main attraction of the video. Long shots are rarely used; one example of a long shot was when she was on the motorbike and occasionally when she is dancing; they are used. Any other extras in the video have little prevalence in comparison which shows how important Britney is and this reinforces the fact she is the centre of attention.

Editing

As mentioned, Britney is the centre of attention and centre of the camera shots. The collaboration of all of these shots are used in such a way that is sexualises her; an example of this was when a close up of her posterior on the plane was used when she was wearing a high riding playsuit. The shots are short and sharp which is done to keep up with the fast tempo of the song.

Intertextuality 

Holly Valance was a pop singer who Britney was quite similar to; her hit song was 'kiss kiss' which featured near nude scenes which could have influenced the industry and Britney in regards to the dance similarities between the two videos. Also at the time of the release of Spears' 'Toxic', there was a popular Tv series called Alias which features a spy who uses different disguises. Moreover, the first seasons DVD cover featured a look very similar to a red haired Britney and this could have potentially been an influence.

Narrative/Performance 

The narrative for Toxic adheres very closely to Steve Archer’s definition of a music video. There are performative elements to the piece so that Britney can display her skills as a dancer (one of her main selling points) where as the main narrative of a female spy who will go to any lengths (using her sexuality for instance) to reach the object of the quest marks Britney’s own desire to escape the confines of the music industry. This ‘dressing up’ element of the video is also shared by her target audience who after four years of watching Britney grow older and more mature are eager to do the same. The close-up and lip synching of the main star is also the main performance of the video as well; again very common in pop videos as well as rock videos as well.

Star image/the brand

The performers of the piece are shown in a variety of different ways, firstly the character than Britney is portraying is constantly wearing revealing clothes but these don't suggest that subjected to a man's opinions of her. She is shown to be powerful and dominant and this is shown through various scenes of the video, including the scene in which she throws the man to the floor. In the video, she is not surrounded by men, whilst she is attempting to catch a man it is only to kill him and not for him to fall in love with her, this can be interpreted to suggest that Britney's character is independent. While she has more skin on show than the men it doesn't evoke the idea that she's weak to the allure of men.

Some scenes put emphasis on her talents, other than singing, such as raising her legs and jumping laser beams and spinning the lasso whilst riding the motorcycle, this is to satisfy her fans.

The man that appears driving the motorcycle is the model Tyson Beckford, he appears topless in the video, gratifying the idea of the female gaze, his presence is an attempt to add some more sex appeal for female viewers. The fact he's a model in real life suggests that 'ordinary' men are not good enough for the video, and the fact he has skin on show proves a similarity in the portrayal of men and women.

The central male character of the piece is shown to be in disguise at the start of the video to add to the story and to show Britney's character's intelligence. The way Britney uses her 'sexual allure' to draw him to the bathroom shows her sexuality is her main advantage, when he turns out to be wearing a mask it suggests that, again, ordinary men aren't acceptable for Britney. He is depicted as attractive, especially shown to be when Britney enters his penthouse and his head turns slowly in natural lighting, the effect puts emphasis on his looks and gives the viewers a theory as to why she might be chasing after him. However, his looks don't deviate her from completing her 'mission'. He is clearly wealthy as he is always seen to be wearing a suit and by the fact, he is living in a penthouse apartment.

Voyeurism

The piece does imply that the audience does maintain a voyeuristic view of women as the majority of the camera work draws to Britney, often in a sexualised manner, implying the notion of 'looking'. For example, the plane scene when the camera focuses in on Britney's bum, it suggests that it is the position in which people would like to view women. The video obviously conforms to the male gaze of Mulvey’s teaching. Britney is sexualised as an object to be looked at and appraised. The fact she wears a near nude suit and the camera focuses on her legs and bum at the start of the video highlight pop music’s desire to sell sexuality to a young audience. What complicates this though is the fact that Britney controls the narrative completely. She is definitely not passive in the traditional sense and in many ways, she manipulates men for her own desires. She is the one who is a superhero and the wink at the end is the proof needed for this complication. Is it a wink to suggest sexuality? Is it a wink to suggest power and control? The answer lies within the reader because as we know different audiences will read the video in different ways.

R&B/Soul Music Video Codes & Conventions

Codes & Conventions of Music Videos

History of Music Videos

What is a music video?

Prelim

The song I chose to do for my prelim was 'Stay With Me' by Sam Smith